Medieval India was a long period of post-classical history in the Indian subcontinent between the ancient and modern periods. It is usually regarded as running approximately from the break-up of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century to the start of the early modern period in 1526 with the start of the Mughal Empire, although some historians regard it as both starting and finishing later than these points. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the early medieval and late medieval eras.
In the early medieval period, there were more than 40 different states on the Indian subcontinent, which hosted a variety of cultures, languages, writing systems, and Indian religions.[ History of Asia by B.V. Rao p.211] In this time period, neighbouring regions such as Afghanistan, Tibet, and Southeast Asia were under Greater India.
During the late medieval period, a series of Islamic invasions by the Caliphate, the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids conquered large portions of Northern India. Turkestan Qutb ud-Din Aibak declared his independence from the Ghurid Empire and founded the Delhi Sultanate which ruled until the 16th century. As a consequence, Buddhism declined in South Asia, but Hinduism survived and reinforced itself in areas conquered by Muslim empires. In the far South, the Vijayanagara Empire resisted Muslim conquests, sparking a long rivalry with the Bahmani Sultanate. The turn of the 16th century would see introduction of gunpowder and the rise of a new Muslim empire—the Mughals, as well as the establishment of European trade posts by the Portuguese India.
Terminology and periodisation
One definition includes the period from the 6th century,
the first half of the 7th century,
[Chakravarti, Mahadev, The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages, pp. 153-154, 1986, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., , 9788120800533, google books ] or the 8th century
up to the 16th century, essentially coinciding with the
Middle Ages of Europe. It may be divided into two periods: The 'early medieval period' which lasted from the 6th to the 13th century and the 'late medieval period' which lasted from the 13th to the 16th century, ending with the start of the
Mughal Empire in 1526. The Mughal era, from the 16th century to the 18th century, is often referred to as the early modern period,
but is sometimes also included in the 'late medieval' period.
An alternative definition, often seen in those more recent authors who still use the term at all, brings the start of the medieval times forward, either to about 1000 CE, or to the 12th century.[According to the article on [2] in Banglapedia, "Unlike European periodisation, the medieval period in Indian history is generally regarded to have started with the coming of the Muslims, particularly the conquest of Delhi towards the end of the twelfth century by the Ghorids of Afghanistan." The "generally regarded" is dubious.] The end may be pushed back to the 18th century, Hence, this period can be effectively considered as the beginning of Muslim domination to British India.[Ahmed, xviii]
The use of "medieval" at all as a term for periods in Indian history has often been objected to, and is probably becoming more rare (there is a similar discussion in terms of the history of China).[Keay, 155 "... the history of what used to be called 'medieval' India ..."] It is argued that neither the start nor the end of the period really mark fundamental changes in Indian history, comparable to the European equivalents.[Rowland, 273] Burton Stein still used the concept in his A History of India (1998), referring to the period from the Guptas to the Mughals, but most recent authors using it are Indian. Understandably, they often specify the period they cover within their titles.[Examples: Farooqui; Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D., 2002, google books ; Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, 2004 (2 vols), google books ; Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century, 2008, google books ]
Periods
Early medieval period
The start of the period is typically taken to be the slow collapse of the
Gupta Empire from about 480 to 550,
[Rowland, 273; Stein, 105] ending the "classical" period, as well as "ancient India",
[Not for Burjor Avari, who ends "ancient India" at 1200. Avari, 2] although both these terms may be used for periods with widely different dates, especially in specialised fields such as the history of art or religion.
[For architecture, see Michell, 87-88. For "classical hinduism", see the note at Outline of ancient India.] Another alternative for the preceding period is "Early Historical" stretching "from the sixth century BC to the sixth century AD", according to
Romila Thapar.
[ Early Indian History and the Legacy of D.D. Kosambi by Romila Thapar. Resonance, June 2011, p. 571]
At least in northern India, there was no larger state until the Delhi Sultanate, or certainly the Mughal Empire,[Keay, xxii-xxiii] but there were several different dynasties ruling large areas for long periods, as well as many other dynasties ruling smaller areas, often paying some form of tribute to larger states. John Keay puts the typical number of dynasties within the subcontinent at any one time at between 20 and 40,[Keay, xx-xxi] not including local .
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Pallava dynasty, rulers of Telugu people and some Tamilakam areas from the 3rd to 9th centuries.
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Empire of Harsha, a brief period of control of most of north India, from 601 to 647, under Harsha of the Vardhana dynasty.
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Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty was the last largest dynasty of northern India which rivalled the Gupta empire in extent and ruled a large swath of northern India from the 6th century to 11th century. They can be differentiated from other kingdoms as they were called Imperial Pratiharas.
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Chalukya dynasty ruled most of the western Deccan and some parts of South India, between the 6th and 12th centuries. Kannada-speaking, with capital at Badami.
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Rashtrakuta dynasty, ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and 10th centuries and built the World Heritage site of Ellora, Maharashtra.
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Eastern Chalukyas, 7th and 12th centuries, a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in present-day Andhra Pradesh, with their capital at Vengi.
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Kingdom of Valabhi ruled by Maitraka dynasty, which was founded after decline of Gupta Empire, it controlled whole of Gujarat and areas beyond from 5th century to 8th century. They were succeeded by .
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Saindhava later known as Jethwa dynasty ruled from 7th century large parts of Saurahtra and controlled western coast of Gujarat for many years before their territory was reduced to Porbandar State which merged into India in 1947.
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Pala Empire, the last major Buddhist rulers, from the 8th to 12th centuries in Bengal. Briefly controlled most of north India in the 9th century.
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Chola Empire, a South Indian empire which ruled from Tamil Nadu and extending to neighbouring states. Also conducted raids on Southeast Asian kingdoms at its height. Ruled from the 9th century to 13th century.
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Western Chalukya Empire, ruled most of the western Deccan and some of South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. Kannada-speaking, with capital at Badami.
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Kalachuri dynasty, ruled areas in Central India during 10th-12th centuries.
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Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur, ruled Chotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand.
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Western Ganga dynasty, was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka, often under the overlordship of larger states, from about 350 to 1000 CE. The large monolithic Bahubali of Shravanabelagola was built during their rule.
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Eastern Ganga dynasty, was a royal dynasty ruling Odisha region who ruled from 11th to 15th century and have marital alliances with Chalukyas and Chola Empire. They have built famous Konark Sun Temple and Jagannath Temple, Puri.
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Hoysala Empire, a prominent Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu.
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Kakatiya dynasty, a Telugu people dynasty that ruled most of current day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana f
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Kamarupa, 4th to 12th century in Assam, ruled by three dynasties viz Varman dynasty, Mlechchha dynasty, Pala dynasty (Kamarupa).
Late medieval period
This period follows the Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent and the decline of Buddhism, the eventual founding of the
Delhi Sultanate and the creation of Indo-Islamic architecture, followed by the world's major trading nation, the
Bengal Sultanate.
[Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, pages 184-185]
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Cutch State 1176-1947, founded by in early 12th century remained till 1947. The branchs of these dynasty founded other kingdoms like Nawanagar State, Rajkot State, Morvi State and remained a dominant force in Kutch and Saurashtra region till merger with India after 1947.
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Bengal Sultanate, 1352 to 1576, ruled over Bengal and much of Burma.
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Khandesh Sultanate under Farooqi dynasty, 1382–1601, in the region of Khandesh
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Jaunpur Sultanate, 1394–1479, in northern India
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Gujarat Sultanate, 1407–1573, in the state of Gujarat.
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Malwa Sultanate, 1392–1562, in the region of Malwa
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Bahmani Sultanate, 1347–1518, in the Deccan region.
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Madurai Sultanate, 1335–1378, in South India.
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Chero dynasty, ruled from the 12th to 18th century, governed over parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand.
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Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya, Buddhist rulers of Magadha with their capital in Bodh Gaya. Ruled from 1120 until the late 13th century.
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Khayaravala dynasty, tribal state and vassals of the Gahadavala dynasty which ruled parts of south western Bihar from the 11-13th century.
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Delhi Sultanate, five short-lived dynasties, based in Delhi, from 1206 to 1526, when it fell to the Mughal Empire.
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Karnats of Mithila, 1097–1324 in the Mithila region of North Bihar and Southern Nepal
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Oiniwar dynasty, 1325–1526 in the Mithila region and successors of the Karnats of Mithila
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Khanzadas of Mewat, initially ruled Mewat under the Delhi Sultanate from 1372 to 1427 then later under independent rule 1427–1527.
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The Sena dynasty, was a Hindu dynasty that ruled from Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. The empire at its peak covered much of the north-eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The rulers of the Sena dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
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Gajapati Empire, was a powerful medieval Hindu dynasty that ruled between 1434 and 1541 over Kalinga (the present day Odisha). At its zenith the empire covered a vast stretch of land bordering river Ganga in the north to river kaveri in the south. They are known for repelling muslim invasions and their conflict with the famous vijayanagara empire.
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Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur, ruled Chotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand.
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Seuna (Yadava) dynasty, 1190–1315, an old Kannada-Maratha dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present-day Maharashtra, north Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh, from its capital at Devagiri.
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Reddy dynasty, 1325 to 1448, ruled in Andhra Pradesh.
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Vijayanagara Empire, 1336–1646, a Hindu-Kannadiga-Telugus empire based in Karnataka, in the Deccan Plateau region. UNESCO World Heritage Site Hampi in Bellary district of Karnataka was their capital city.
Other prominent kingdoms
Northeast India
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Jaintia kingdom, 500–1835, a matrilineal kingdom in present-day Sylhet Division, Bangladesh
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Chutia kingdom, 12th century to 1524, in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, fell to the Ahom kingdom.
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Kamata kingdom, established in the middle of 13th century, broke up in 1582 into Koch Bihar (eventually a princely state) and Koch Hajo (eventually absorbed partly by the Mughal empire and the Ahom kingdom).
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Ahom Kingdom, 1228–1826, Brahmaputra valley in Assam, eventually taken by the British.
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Dimasa kingdom, 13th century to 1832, in North Cachar Hills and Barak valley in Assam, eventually annexed by the British.
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Tripura kingdom, unknown origin, survived as princely state during the British Raj and absorbed into India.
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Manipur kingdom, unknown to 1949, princely state during the British Raj and absorbed into India in 1949.
Early modern period
The start of the
Mughal Empire in 1526 marked the beginning of the early modern period of Indian history,
often referred to as the Mughal era. Sometimes, the Mughal era is also referred as the 'late medieval' period.
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Nayaka dynasties of Kannada, Telugu and Tamil kings that ruled parts of south India after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1646. Their contribution can be seen in Ikkeri, Sri Ranga, Madurai, and Chitradurga. The earliest of its dynasties date from the early 14th century and the latest in the 19th century.
[Irschick, Eugene F. Politics and Social Conflict in South India, p. 8: "The successors of the Vijayanagar empire, the Nayaks of Madura and Tanjore, were Balija Naidus."]
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Kingdom of Mysore, a South India kingdom founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. Fully independent after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1646, reduced in size by the British, but ruled by the Wadiyar dynasty as a princely state until 1947.
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Mughal Empire, was an imperial state founded by Babur, who had a Turco-Mongol origin from Central Asia. The empire ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from the 16th to early 18th century, though it lingered for another century, formally ending in 1857.
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Maratha Empire, 1674–1818, was an imperial power based in modern-day Maharashtra in western India. Marathas replaced the Mughal rule over large parts of India in the 18th century, but lost the Anglo-Maratha Wars in the early 19th century, and became rulers of princely states.
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Sikh Empire, 1799–1849, was a major power in the Northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, which arose under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the Punjab region. They were usurped by the British East India Company between the early and mid 19th century, following the British victory in the Second Anglo-Sikh War.
Historiography
Modern historical works written on medieval India have received some criticism from scholars studying the
historiography of the period. E. Sreedharan argues that, from the turn of the century until the 1960s, Indian historians were often motivated by Indian nationalism.
Peter Hardy notes that the majority of modern historical works on medieval India up until then were written by British and Hindu historians, whereas the work of modern Muslim historians was under-represented.
He argues that some of the modern Muslim historiography on medieval India at the time was motivated by Islamic apologetics, attempting to justify "the life of medieval Muslims to the modern world."
Ram Sharan Sharma has criticised the simplistic manner in which Indian history is often divided into an ancient "Hindu" period, a medieval "Muslim" period, and a modern "British" period. He argues that there is no clear sharp distinction between when the ancient period ended and when the medieval period began, noting dates ranging from the 7th century to the 13th century.
Notes
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Avari, Burjor, India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200, 2016 (2nd edn), Routledge, , 9781317236733, google books
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Farooqui, Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, 2011, Pearson Education India, , 9788131732021, google books
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Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art,
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John Keay, India: A History, 2000, HarperCollins,
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Michell, George, (1977) The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms, 1977, University of Chicago Press,
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Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin,
Further reading
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Satish Chandra; Historiography, Religion and State in Medieval India, Har-Anand Publications, 2010.
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Elliot and Dowson: The History of India as told by its own Historians, New Delhi reprint, 1990.
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Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877– This online Copy has been posted by: )
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Jos Gommans (2002), Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700, Routledge, .
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Lal, K. S. (1999). Theory and practice of Muslim state in India. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
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Misra, R. G. (1993). Indian resistance to early Muslim invaders up to 1206 AD. Meerut City: Anu Books.
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Jadunath Sarkar. (1997). Fall of the Mughal Empire: Vol. 1–4. Hyderabad: Orient Longman.
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Jadunath Sarkar. (1975). Studies in economic life in Mughal India. Delhi: Oriental Publishers & Distributors.; (1987). Mughal economy: Organization and working. Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash.
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Srivastava, A. L. (1970). The Mughal Empire, 1526-1803 A.D. ... Seventh revised edition. Agra: Shiva Lal Agarwala & Co.
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Srivastava, A. L. (1975). Medieval Indian culture. Agra: Agarwala.
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Wink, André (1996). Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic Worlds Vol 1. E. J. Brill. .
- Primary sources
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Babur, ., & Thackston, W. M. (2002). The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, prince and emperor. New York: Modern Library.
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Muḥammad, A. K., & Pandit, K. N. (2009). A Muslim missionary in mediaeval Kashmir: Being the English translation of Tohfatu'l-ahbab.
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Jain, M. The India They Saw : Foreign Accounts (4 Volumes) Delhi: Ocean Books, 2011.
External links
